Question- What are the aims of teaching English Grammar ?

Ans.

Aims of teaching English Grammar

Grammar has the facts of language arranged under certain categories and deals only with what can be brought under general laws and stated in the form of general rules

Grammar teaches the rule of a language for changing the form of words and combining then into sentences. The main aims of teaching english grammar are–

1. To enable the students to learn the foundation of english language.
2. To enable them to think scientifically of english language.
3. To enable them to speak and write grammatically correct english.
4. To develop pupils insight into the structure of english language and acquaint them with the functions of different parts of speech.
5. To develop their power of reasoning and observation.
6. To enable them to apply the rules of grammar in their study course.

Composition and Grammar

Composition - is an art of self-expression. It is also called the expressive aspect of language. According to Bhatiya and Bhatiya :-
It is the expression of the child’s thoughts his own ideas, feelings and observations. It includes both the process and the product of composing. It refers to the process of collecting thoughts, arranging them in a rational sequence and ultimately expressing them in accordance with recognised standards of form. The product may take the shape of a letter, an application, a paragraph, a story, an essay, a description or narration, a poem.

Thus teaching of composition develops the skill of expression in the students. If is a process of collecting thoughts and arranging them in a particular process.

Classification of Composition :- There are two types of composition which can be shown as follows –

 Composition | ---------------------------------- | | Oral Written | | ------------- -------------- | | | | Guides Free Guides Free 

(i) Oral Composition – Oral composition is regarded as the most important aspect of learning and teaching English. In primary classes, oral composition is the natural and proper preliminary to written composition. Even in higher classes its importance can’t be because speech is the vital and essential form of learning. At every stage of teaching, oral composition should proceed written composition.

According to Laurie – “The habit of oral composition should be kept up during the whole school period.”
According to Wren – “Composition should begin with the power of speech and should be oral long before it is written.”

The importance of oral composition – Oral composition is needed face to face communication and is used in every span of life. It is important since in learning english it is comperative that the learner should be fluent in speaking english without developing the power of oral composition one cannot be either a good lecturer or a good speaker. It play an important role in learning, speaking and in communication in the following ways –

1. It develops confidence in communicating with others.
2. It refines pronunciation of the words.
3. It is simple and it saves time.
4. It forms foundation for written composition.
5. It enables students to participate in public ceremonies like speeches, talks, entertainment etc.
6. It helps students to think clearly.

Aims of Teaching of Oral composition – The following are some of the objectives of teaching composition –
(i) To enable the students to express their thoughts, feelings, ideas, freely.
(ii) To give practice in using the English language.
(iii) To promote a clear thinking.
(iv) To create suitable situations in the class-room.

The oral composition may be taught by following techniques :
• Repetition.
• Giving orders.
• Making Conversation.
• Asking questions.
• Asking to read.

Written Composition – Written composition is a procedure in which the students learn how to put down their ideas into writing of their own. It may start from writing one or a few lines on a subject to write exhaustively in the form of an essay, story, poetry, letter or passage. The written composition may be of the following types –
(i) Expository writing.    
(ii) Argumentative writing.
(iii) Descriptive writing.   
(iv) Narrative writing.

Aims of Teaching of Written Composition :- The aims of teaching of written composition are as following –
(i) To enable the students to write legible, beautifully and correctly.
(ii) To recall adequate and appropriate vocabulary and use it properly.
(iii) To develop in them a habit of clear and logical presentation of facts.
(iv) To develop the communicative competence in the students.
(v) To enable the students to write freely and at adequate speed.
(vi) To stimulate them to think about the situation provided.
(vii) To teach them new to organise thoughts and idea in accordance with the accepted usage.
(viii) To enable the students to use the tools of writing such as punctuation marks, spleling, grammar etc.
(ix) To enlarge their working as well as recognition of vocabulary.
(x) To give them practice in the use of English.

The written composition may be taught by following devices –
(a) Guided Composition –
• Substitution tables.      • Dictation.
• Transformation of sentences.  • Reproduction.
• Composition of incomplete sentences.

(b) Free Composition :-
• Paragraph construction.    • Letter and application writing.
• Essay writing.         • Narrative writing.
• Story writing.         • Precis writing.
• Descriptive writing.

Difference between guided composition and free composition –
Composition is one of the most important branch of teaching in recent year increased attention is given to it that resulting in a great improvement in teaching methodology. One of the aims of teaching english is to enable the students to express themselves correctly in the written and spoken from. In this way these are two types of composition.

1. Oral Composition,   2. Written Composition.
   Both of them are further divided into two kinds :
   (A) Grided composition,
   (B) Free composition.

Guided Composition : From begining stage the students should be properly and strictly guided by the therefore learning composition whether and or written. It is because students are imitators by nature. On the basis of proper guidence they get improvement their knowledge of composition students are provided with specific situations ideas, structure and vocabulary under this process. The teacher supplies vocabulary and guides the students for composition. Thus the students have to go according to the teachers direction. The control of teacher is rather loose because within the given habit the students have a choice of combination of word-groups and composition of ideas. Teacher is mainly concerned with selection and correction of the composition. It is directed writing and close ended.

Free Composition : Free composition is taught at the later stage of the students. As the name suggests, in the free composition the students are free to make use of vocabulary and structure of theis own to express their related to the scheduled topic. By the way the student learn how to use these own ideas is their own language.

Thus the guided or controlled composition gives favourit result at early stages language learning e.g. at the junior school level where the students are guided by controlled pattern and vocabulary. Free composition comes much later when the students reach higherlasses and are confident to embark upon new territories. There is no restriction on pupils for use of vocabulary and structure and they are forced to think freely.

Parts of Speech

अंग्रेज़ी भाषा में शब्दों को व्याकरण (Grammar) के दृष्टिकोण से निम्नलिखित आठ भागों में बाँटा गया है –

1. Noun (संज्ञा)
2. Pronoun (सर्वनाम)
3. Adjective (विशेषण)
4. Verb (क्रिया)
5. Adverb (क्रिया–विशेषण)
6. Preposition (सम्बन्धबोधक)
7. Conjunction (संयोजक)
8. Interjection (विस्मयादिबोधक)

प्रत्येक भाषा में प्रत्येक शब्द का अपना महत्त्व होता है। शब्द वाक्य का निर्माण करते हैं, और भाषा का आधार होते हैं। इसी प्रकार अंग्रेज़ी भाषा में भी प्रत्येक शब्द का वाक्य में एक स्थान एवं उपयोगिता निश्चित है। अतः प्रत्येक शब्द का वाक्य में महत्त्व का समझने के लिए उपर्युक्त भागों का पूर्ण ज्ञान होना आवश्यक है।

1. The Noun (संज्ञा)

Meaning and Definition – “Noun is the name of any person, place or thing.”
संज्ञा किसी व्यक्ति, वस्तु या स्थान के नाम को कहते हैं।
उपरोक्त परिभाषा के आधार पर यह स्पष्ट है कि नाम बतलाने वाले शब्द (Naming words) Noun (संज्ञा) कहलाते हैं। अतः कहा जा सकता है कि, “Naming words are Noun.” (नाम बताने वाले शब्द संज्ञा हैं)।

उदाहरण – Ram, Mohan, Geeta, Delhi, Kanpur, book, etc.

Kinds of Noun (संज्ञा के भेद)

व्यक्ति, वस्तु तथा स्थान के प्रकारों के आधार पर Noun (संज्ञा) के निम्नलिखित पाँच भेद होते हैं –

1. Proper Noun (व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा) – “Proper noun is the name of any particular person, place or thing.”
व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा किसी विशेष व्यक्ति, वस्तु या स्थान के नाम को कहते हैं। अर्थात, जो शब्द सुनते ही हमारे मस्तिष्क में किसी व्यक्ति विशेष, या स्थान विशेष या वस्तु विशेष का चित्र उभरता है, उसे व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा कहते हैं। उदाहरण –
Ram, Mohan, Shyam, Delhi, Kanpur, Ramcharitmanas etc.

2. Common Noun (जातिवाचक संज्ञा) – “Common Noun is the name of any common person, place or thing.” जातिवाचक संज्ञा किसी सामान्य व्यक्ति, वस्तु या स्थान के नाम को कहते हैं। अर्थात् जिस व्यक्ति, वस्तु या स्थान का नाम सुनते ही मस्तिष्क में किसी सामान्य व्यक्ति, वस्तु या स्थान का चित्र उभरता है, उसे Common Noun (जातिवाचक संज्ञा) कहते हैं।
उदाहरण – Boy, City, Toy, Man, Woman, Book, Country, Village etc.

3. Collective Noun (समूहवाचक संज्ञा) – “A collective noun is the name of a group of persons or things.”
समूहवाचक संज्ञा किसी व्यक्ति या वस्तुओं के समूह के नाम को कहते हैं।

4. Material Noun (पदार्थवाचक संज्ञा) – “A material noun is a name of a thing or a material which can be use for making another thing.”
पदार्थवाचक संज्ञा उस वस्तु या उस पदार्थ का नाम है जिसका प्रयोग कोई वस्तु बनाने में किया जा सकता है।
उदाहरण – gold, silver, copper, wood, etc.

5. Abstract Noun (भाववाचक संज्ञा) – “A abstract noun is the name of any quality, state or action”
भाववाचक संज्ञा किसी विशेषता, स्थिति या कार्य का नाम को कहते हैं।
उदाहरण –
Honesty (ईमानदारी), Poverty (गरीबी), Wisdom (बुद्धिमानी), Folly (मूर्खता), Health (स्वास्थ्य), Happiness (आनन्द), Sorrow (दुःख), Memory (स्मृति), Sympathy (सहानुभूति), Slavery (गुलामी), Freedom (आज़ादी) etc.

Other Classification of Noun (संज्ञा का अन्य वर्गीकरण) –
एक अन्य वर्गीकरण के द्वारा Noun दो प्रकार की होती है –

1. Countable Noun – Countable Nouns वे Noun हैं, जिनकी गणना की जा सकती है।
उदाहरण – one apple, two bananas, three persons, four cities etc.

2. Uncountable Noun – Uncountable Nouns वे Noun हैं जिनकी गणना नहीं की जा सकती है।
उदाहरण – sugar, milk, gold, silver, sympathy, joy etc.

विशेष –
(i) Countable Nouns का प्रयोग Singular एवं Plural दोनों रूपों में हो सकता है परन्तु Uncountable Nouns को Plural में प्रयोग सम्भव नहीं है।
(ii) Countable Nouns के अन्तर्गत Common Noun तथा Proper Noun आती हैं जबकि Uncountable Nouns के अन्तर्गत Abstract Noun, Material Noun and Collective Nouns आती हैं।

Number (वचन)
Noun का प्रयोग दो वचनों में होता है – Singular (एकवचन), Plural (बहुवचन)।
Singular Number से एक व्यक्ति, एक वस्तु या स्थान का पता चलता है।
उदाहरण – boy, girl, city, cow, man, village etc.
Plural Number से दो या दो से अधिक वस्तु का पता चलता है।
उदाहरण – boys, girls, cities, birds, cows, men, villages etc.

Genders (लिंग)
Genders (लिंग) चार प्रकार के होते हैं –
1. Masculine Gender (पुल्लिंग) – Masculine Gender से हमें संज्ञा के पुरुष होने (male) का ज्ञान होता है।
उदाहरण – boy (लड़का), king (राजा), horse (घोड़ा), lion (सिंह) etc.

2. Feminine Gender (स्त्रीलिंग) – Feminine Gender से हमें संज्ञा के स्त्री (female) होने का ज्ञान होता है।
उदाहरण – girl, queen, mare, lioness, daughter etc.

3. Common Gender (उभयलिंग) – Common Gender से हमें संज्ञा के किसी या पुरुष (Male or Female) होने का पता चलता है। उदाहरण – friend, students, parents, child, etc.

4. Neuter Gender (नपुंसक लिंग) – Neuter Gender से हमें Lifeless (निर्जीव) वस्तुओं का पता चलता है। उदाहरण – scooter, cycle, table, chair, mountain etc.

Functions of the Noun

Nouns द्वारा निम्नलिखित प्रकार के 7 कार्य किये जाते हैं –
(i) Subject of the verb,
(ii) Object of verb,
(iii) Object of the preposition,
(iv) Complement of the verb,
(v) Possessing the noun,
(vi) Apposition to a Noun,
(vii) Nominative address (vocative case).

2. The Pronoun (सर्वनाम)

Pronoun (सर्वनाम) – "Pronoun is a word used in place of noun"
सर्वनाम वह शब्द हैं जिनका प्रयोग संज्ञा (Noun) के स्थान पर होता है। उदाहरण – Hari is ill so he could not come. इस वाक्य में he का प्रयोग Hari के लिए किया गया है अतः 'he' शब्द Pronoun है।

Kinds of Pronoun (सर्वनाम के भेद) –
Pronoun (सर्वनाम) निम्नलिखित नौ प्रकार के होते हैं –

1. Personal Pronoun (पुर्षवाचक सर्वनाम)
2. Reflexive Pronoun (निजवाचक सर्वनाम)
3. Emphatic Pronoun (दृढ़तावाचक सर्वनाम)
4. Reciprocal Pronoun (परस्परवाचक सर्वनाम)
5. Demonstrative Pronoun (संकेतवाचक सर्वनाम)
6. Interrogative Pronoun (प्रश्नवाचक सर्वनाम)
7. Indefinite Pronoun (अनिश्वयवाचक सर्वनाम)
8. Distributive Pronoun (विभाजकवाचक सर्वनाम)
9. Relative Pronoun (सम्बन्धवाचक सर्वनाम)

3. The Adjective (विशेषण)

“Adjective is a word which qualifies to a noun or pronoun.”
विशेषण वे शब्द हैं जो किसी संज्ञा या सर्वनाम की विशेषता बताते हैं। उदाहरण –

1. Mohan is a good boy.
2. My pen is black.
3. Idle man is good for none.

उपरोक्त वाक्यों में good, black और idle शब्द क्रमशः boy, pen और man शब्दों की विशेषता बता रहे हैं अतः ये Adjectives (विशेषण) हैं।

Kinds of Adjective (विशेषण के भेद)

Adjective (विशेषण) निम्नलिखित पाँच प्रकार के होते हैं –

1. Adjective of Quality (गुणवाचक विशेषण),
2. Adjective of Quantity (मात्रावाचक विशेषण),
3. Adjective of Number (संख्यावाचक विशेषण),
4. Demonstrative Adjective (संकेतवाचक विशेषण),
5. Interrogative Adjective (प्रश्नवाचक विशेषण)

4. The Verb (क्रिया)

Verb (क्रिया) – "A verb is a word which is used to say something about some person, place or thing."

क्रिया वह शब्द है जो किसी व्यक्ति, स्थान या वस्तु के सम्बन्ध में कुछ बताने का कार्य करता है।

Kinds of Verb (क्रिया के प्रकार) –

1. Transitive Verb (सकर्मक क्रिया) – Transitive का अर्थ है Passive over अर्थात् जब कर्ता के क्रिया करने का परिणाम कर्म के ऊपर पड़ता है तो क्रिया Transitive होती है। उदाहरण –

   I play cricket. 2. Meera reads a book. 3. Shyam is teaching me. 4. Mother cooks food.
   

   उपरोक्त वाक्यों में क्रमशः: Play, reads, teaching, cooks क्रियाएं Transitive हैं क्योंकि इनके subject के कार्य का प्रभाव क्रमशः: cricket, book, me तथा food के परिणाम पर पड़ रहा है।

2. Intransitive Verb (अकर्मक क्रिया) – Intransitive का अर्थ है Not passive over अर्थात् जब कर्ता के क्रिया करने का परिणाम कर्म के ऊपर नहीं पड़ता है तो verb Intransitive होती है। उदाहरण – 1. Birds fly. 2. Mohan swims. 3. Sita goes to school.
   उपरोक्त वाक्यों में कर्ता के कार्य का कर्म पर कोई प्रभाव नहीं पड़ रहा है।

The Adverb (क्रिया विशेषण)

Adverb (क्रिया विशेषण) – An adverb is a word that modifies everything except a noun, pronoun and interjection.
Adverb वे शब्द हैं जो Noun, Pronoun और Interjection के अतिरिक्त सभी Parts of speech को विशेषता प्रकट करते हुए उनके अर्थ को परिवर्तित कर देते हैं। उदाहरण –

He writes correctly. (Modifying a verb)
He is a very good boy. (Modifying an adjective)

प्रथम वाक्य में Correctly शब्द क्रिया Writes की तथा दूसरे वाक्य में very शब्द good adjective की विशेषता बता रहे हैं। अतः correctly तथा very दोनों adverb हैं।

The Preposition

Meaning and Definition (अर्थ एवं परिभाषा) – “A preposition is a word used before a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else.”

Preposition वह शब्द है जो किसी Noun या Pronoun के पहले प्रयुक्त होकर उस Noun या Pronoun द्वारा सूचित व्यक्ति या वस्तु का सम्बन्ध किसी अन्य Noun या Pronoun से प्रदर्शित करता है। उदाहरण –

There is a cow in the garden. 2. Monkeys sat on a wall. 3. He has a chain of gold. 4. I am with you.

उपरोक्त वाक्यों में in, on, of, with prepositions हैं।

Kinds of Preposition – Prepositions तीन प्रकार के होते हैं –

1. Simple Prepositions जैसे – in, on, to, from, with, by etc.
2. Compound Preposition जैसे – About, across, among, between, beside etc.

3. Phrase Preposition जैसे – According to, inspite of, on account of, in front of, in order to, for the sake of, by means of etc.

The Conjunction (संयोजक)

Definition (परिभाषा) – A conjunction is a word that joins two words or sentences. संयोजक वह शब्द है जो दो शब्दों या वाक्यों को जोड़ता है।

उदाहरण – 1. Hari and Shyam are coming. 2. Wisemen love truth while fools shun it.

उपरोक्त उदाहरणों में “and” और “while” conjunctions हैं जो क्रमशः ‘Hari और Shyam’ तथा ‘Wisemen love truth’ तथा ‘Fools shun it’ शब्दों और वाक्यों को जोड़ते हैं।

Kinds of Conjuctions – Conjunctions (संयोजक) दो प्रकार के होते हैं –
(i) Co-ordinating Conjunctions (समनापदीय संयोजक)
(ii) Subordinating Conjuctions (आश्रित संयोजक)

Interjection (विस्मयादिबोधक)

Definition (परिभाषा) – Interjection are those words which express of feelings. “जो शब्द हमारे भावनाओं को व्यक्त करते हैं, विस्मयादिबोधक कहलाते हैं।”
कुछ प्रमुख Interjections (विस्मयादिबोधक) निम्नलिखित हैं –

Alas! (अफसोस! हाय! आह!) – ये दुःख का भाव प्रकट करते हैं।

Hurrah! (अहा! हां!) – ये खुशी का भाव प्रकट करते हैं।

Bravo! (शाबाश!) – ये प्रशंसा का भाव व्यक्त करते हैं।

Hark! (सुनो!) – इसका प्रयोग किसी का ध्यान आकर्षित करने के लिए किया जाता है।

Hello (हेल्लो!) – इसका प्रयोग किसी को सम्बोधित करने के लिए किया जाता है।

Oh! (ओह!) – इसका प्रयोग आश्चर्य प्रकट करने के लिये किया जाता है।

Hush! (चुप!) – इसका प्रयोग किसी को चुप कराने के लिए किया जाता है।

The Articles

Articles का प्रयोग वाक्य में noun या pronouns की ओर संकेत करने के लिये किया जाता है। Articles दो प्रकार के होते हैं –
(i) Indefinite Article (ii) Definite Article

Indefinite Article – A तथा An Indefinite Articles हैं।
उदाहरण – pen, a book, a uniform, an egg, an elephant, an hour etc.

Definite Articles – The definite article है।
उदाहरण – The Himalayas, The Ganges, The Ramayana, The Bible etc.

Article ‘A’ का प्रयोग उन शब्दों के पूर्व किया जाता है जो vowel sounds से आरम्भ होते हैं। इस सम्बन्ध में उल्लेखनीय है कि कुछ शब्दार्थ दृष्टियों में uniform ‘U’ वर्णमाला से आरम्भ होता है परन्तु यह Consonant sound ‘यू’ की ध्वनि देता है। अतः a uniform लिखा जाता है। इसी प्रकार शब्द ‘Hour’ वर्णमाला से आरम्भ होता है परन्तु उच्चारण किया जाता है तो vowel sound से आरम्भ होता है अतः: इसे an hour लिखा जाता है।

10. Determiners

शब्दों का वह समूह, जो Noun से पहले प्रयोग किया जाता है, और किसी प्रकार उन Nouns को निश्चित करता है या उन्हें स्पष्टतः समझाता है, Determiner कहलाता है। इनकी संख्या 16 है। इनमें से कोई भी Noun के पहले वाक्य में साथ-साथ नहीं रखा जा सकता है। ये Determiners निम्नलिखित हैं –

1. Demonstrative Determiners – This, that, these, those. उदाहरण –
(i) This house was built my uncle.
(ii) These trees were planted by my father.

2. Possessive Determiners – My, your, his, her, its, our, their. उदाहरण –
(i) That is my umbrella.
(ii) Let me see your note book.

3. Amount Determiners – Some, Any. उदाहरण –
(i) I wrote some letters today.
(ii) I found some many missing from cash box.

4. Articles Determiners – A, an, the. उदाहरण –
(i) I have bought a note book.
(ii) A clever boy is going there.

Active Voice and Passive Voice

The rules of changing active voice into passive voice –

1. Voice क्रिया (Verb) का वह रूप है जिससे यह ज्ञात हो जाये कि sentence में Subject का स्थान मुख्य है या Object का।

2. Voice दो प्रकार का होता है – (a) Active voice (b) Passive voice
   Active voice – इसमें Sentences में Subject का स्थान प्रमुख होता है। इसमें verb का कार्य Subject द्वारा होता है।
   Ram kills a rat.
   Passive voice – इसमें object का स्थान प्रमुख होता है। इसमें verb का कार्य Object द्वारा कराया जाता है।
   A rat is killed by Ram.

3. Active voice का सूत्र S + V + O
   Passive voice का सूत्र O + Be Auk eU + V3 + by + U.C3

4. साधारण वाक्य (Assertive sentence)
   Passive बनाने के लिए नियम –
   (a) Subject को Object बनाइए। (b) Be का रूप लिखिए, (c) Verb का Third form लिखिए, (d) by लगाइए तथा (e) Object के स्थान पर Subject लगाइए।
   Subject से Object तथा Object से Subject बनाने का क्रम –
   He, she, I, we, they, who, It, you.
   Him, Her, Me, us, them, whom, It, you.

Be के रूप – Be, Been, Being, Is, Am, Are, Was, Were.
(i) Be का प्रयोग will, shall, would, should, could, might, may, must, ought, can आदि से चालू हुए वाक्यों में तथा Imperative वाक्यों में।
(ii) Been का प्रयोग Present Perfect Tense में, Past Perfect Tense में तथा Future Perfect Tense में होता है।
(iii) Being का प्रयोग Present continuous तथा Past Continuous में होता है।

(iv) Is, am, Are का प्रयोग Present Indefinite के वाक्य में होता है।
(v) was, were का प्रयोग Past Indefinite के वाक्य में होता है।

5. प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य (Interrogative Sentence) – Who से प्रारम्भ होने वाले वाक्यों में By whom प्रारम्भ में ही रख देते हैं और फिर नियम के आधार पर वाक्य बनाते हैं किन्तु अन्य प्रकार के प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य पूर्व नियम से बदलते हैं :
   Why is he killing a bird? प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य
   He is killing a bird. साधारण वाक्य
   Why is a bird being killed by him? प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य
   A bird is being killed by him. (Passive)

6. आज्ञासूचक वाक्य (Imperative Sentence) – इस प्रकार के वाक्य दो प्रकार से तैयार बनते हैं –
   Let के द्वारा – या निम्न वाक्यों के प्रयोग से बनते हैं –
   Do it. (Active)
   Let it be done. (Passive)
   You are advised to (V + O से प्रारम्भ वाक्यों में)
   You are ordered to (V + O से प्रारम्भ वाक्यों में)
   You are forbidden to (Do not या Never से शुरू वाक्य में)
   You are requested to (Please या kindly से शुरू वाक्य में)
   उदाहरण – Do it. (Active)
   You are advised to do it. (Passive)
   Please go there.
   You are requested to go there.

7. Infinitive का प्रयोग – कभी-कभी infinitive को Past Participle में बदलकर तथा उसके पहले to be लगाकर Active से Passive बनाते हैं।
   It is time to close the shop. (Active)
   It is time for the shop to be closed. (Passive)

8. Verbal Noun को Past Participle में बदलकर इसके पूर्व being लगाकर यूँ ही काम चलाया जाता है।
   They went to see the launching of the ship. (Active)
   They went to see the ship being launched. (Passive)

9. जब हम कर्ता को सली-भांति जानते हैं तो Passive voice में उसे तूल नहीं रहने देते हैं।
   The sea wrecked the ship. (Active)
   The ship was wrecked. (Passive)

10. जब किसी active पर emphasis डाला जाता है तो ’by’ का प्रयोग नहीं करते।
    Someone has stolen my pen. (Active)
    My pen has been stolen. (Passive)

11. किसी सत्य बात (fact) का वर्णन करते समय Object छोड़ दिया जाता है।
    Thieves are punished.
    Fruits are eaten.

12. यदि Object का लोप कर दिया गया हो तो Passive bkv Active बनाते समय They, we, one आदि का प्रयोग करते हैं।
    I was heard to say so. (Passive)
    They heard me say so. (Active)
    Duty should be done. (Passive)
    One should do one's duty. (Active)

13. कुछ Verb के साथ by के स्थान पर अन्य Prepositions प्रयुक्त किए जाते हैं।

(a) Surprised, astonished, displeased, disappointed, distressed, तथा laughed के बाद at का प्रयोग होता है।
(b) Known तथा obliged के बाद to का प्रयोग होता है।
(c) Satisfied, pleased, disgusted आदि के बाद with का प्रयोग होता है।
(d) Contained, interested, consisted आदि के बाद in का प्रयोग होता है।

Solved Exercise
Active Voice to Passive Voice

1. This cruel man beats him. (Active)
   He is beaten by this cruel man. (Passive)

2. Urmila is reading a book. (Active)
   A book is being read by Urmila. (Passive)

3. He has read a book. (Active)
   A book has been read by him. (Passive)

4. He will read a book. (Active)
   A book will be read by him. (Passive)

5. He will have read a book. (Active)
   A book will have been read by him. (Passive)

6. He read a book. (Active)
   A book was read by him. (Passive)

7. He was reading a book. (Active)
   A book was being read by him. (Passive)

8. He had read a book. (Active)
   A book had been read by him. (Passive)

9. Do it at once. (Active)
   Let it be done at once. (Passive)

10. Please go there. (Active)
    You are requested to go there. (Passive)

Passive Voice to Active Voice

1. The little child was beaten by this cruel man. (Passive)
   This cruel man beat the little child. (Active)

2. Let this work be done at once. (Passive)
   Do this work at once. (Active)

3. By whom have you been slapped? (Passive)
   Who has slapped you? (Active)

4. Is it believed to be right by you? (Passive)
   Do you believe it to be right. (Active)

5. Have you been surprised at my arrival? (Passive)
   Has my arrival surprised you? (Active)

6. You are asked to go at once. (Passive)
   Go at once. (Active)

7. Ravana was killed by Ram. (Passive)
   Ram killed Ravan. (Active)

8. A book was given to me by him. (Passive)
   He gave me a book. (Active)

Direct and Indirect Speech

1. अंग्रेजी भाषा में वक्ता का कथन दो प्रकार से व्यक्त किया जाता है - प्रत्यक्ष (Direct) और परोक्ष (Indirect) कथन।
   यदि हम वक्ता के कथन को उसी के शब्दों में रखते हैं: तो उसे प्रत्यक्ष कथन (Direct Speech) कहते हैं, जैसे -
   Nidhi says "I go to school daily"
   यदि हम उस कथन को यथावत न रखकर अपने शब्दों में प्रकट करते हैं तो उसे परोक्ष कथन (Indirect Speech) कहते हैं, जैसे -
   Nidhi says that she goes to school daily.

2. Direct से Indirect बनाते समय निम्नलिखित परिवर्तन किये जाते हैं -
   (i) भावानुसार Reporting verb बदल दिये जाते हैं।
   (ii) Inverted comma (“ ”) हटाकर उनके स्थान पर उचित संयोजक शब्द (Connective word) जोड़ दिया जाता है।
   (iii) Reported Speech यथा Person बदल दिया जाता है।
   (iv) भावानुसार Reported verb का Tense बदल दिया जाता है।
   (v) शब्दों तथा शब्द-क्रम में कभी-कभी परिवर्तन किया जाता है।

3. भावानुसार Reporting verb बदलना :
   यह परिवर्तन Reported Speech में आये हुए वाक्य के अनुसार होता है -
   (i) साधारण वाक्य (Assertive sentence) होने पर said के स्थान पर told, asserted, remarked, added, continued आदि लिखते हैं। लेकिन यदि Reporting object न हो तो said को told में नहीं बदलते हैं।
   (ii) प्रश्नवाचक (Interogative sentence) होने पर said के स्थान पर asked, enquired of या demanded of लिखते हैं।
   (iii) आदेशसूचक वाक्य (Imperative sentence) होने पर said को said के स्थान पर advised, ordered, forbade, bade, requested, begged, urged, proposed, suggested आदि में लिखते हैं। यदि वाक्य में thank, greet, welcome, congratulate आदि शब्द आते हैं तो उन्हें said के स्थान पर लिखते हैं।
   (iv) हर्ष, विषाद, आश्चर्यसूचक वाक्य (Exclamatory sentence) होने पर said के स्थान पर exclaimed लिखते हैं तथा हर्ष विषाद और आश्चर्यवाचक शब्दों को समाहित कर exclaimed के बाद निम्न परिवर्तन अतिक्त कर -
   ‘Alas’ = with sorrow, Bravo! = with approval Praise, Hurrah = with delight,
   God = with heavens, surprise आदि लिखते हैं।
   (v) इच्छावाचक वाक्य (Optative sentence) में said के स्थान पर wished prayed, cursed, blessed आदि लिखते हैं।

4. संयोजक शब्द (connective word) निम्न प्रकार से रखे जाते हैं -
   Assertive sentence या Exclamatory sentence या Optative sentence यदि Reported speech में हो तो वहाँ संयोजक शब्द (connective word) का प्रयोग करते हैं।
   Interrogative वाक्य यदि सहायक क्रिया से आरम्भ हो तो if या whether संयोजक शब्द का प्रयोग करते हैं किन्तु यदि who, which, what, when where, why आदि शब्द से प्रारम्भ होते हैं तो इन्हीं शब्दों को संयोजक शब्द के रूप में स्वीकार कर लिया जाता है।
   Imperative sentence में कोई संयोजक शब्द प्रयुक्त नहीं होता है। उनके स्थान पर to शब्द का प्रयोग करते हैं जो Reporting speech और Reported speech के बीच प्रयुक्त होता है।

5. Person के परिवर्तन
   (i) यदि Reported speech में first person के Pronoun आते हैं तो उन्हें Reporting subject के अनुसार बदलते हैं, जैसे -
   Direct: Deepti said, "I will do my work."
   Indirect: Deepti said that she would do her work.
   (ii) यदि Reported speech में second person के pronoun आते हैं तो उन्हें Reporting object के अनुसार बदलते हैं।
   यदि Reporting object नहीं होता है तो Third Person में बदल देते हैं, जैसे -
   • Direct: She said to me, "You will fall down."
     Indirect: She told me that I would fall down.
   • Direct: She said, "You will pass."
     Indirect: She said that he would pass.
   • Direct: He said a children, "You will get comfort."
     Indirect: He told the children that they would get comfort.
(iii) Third person के Pronoun नहीं बदलते हैं।

6. Tense परिवर्तन

• (i) यदि Reporting verb present या Future Tense में हो तो Reported verb का Tense नहीं बदलता है, जैसे -
  • Direct: Deepti says to me, "I can help you."
    Indirect: Deepti tells me that she can help me.
  • Direct: Deepti will say to you, "I am going home today."
    Indirect: Deepti will tell you that she is going home that day.
• (ii) यदि Reported speech में Universal truth, customs, या proverbs हो तो Reported verb का Tense नहीं बदलता है, जैसे -
  • Direct: Harish said, "I go for a walk early in the morning daily."
    Indirect: Harish said that he goes for a walk early in the morning daily.
  • Direct: He said, "Muslims bury their dead."
    Indirect: He said that Muslims bury their dead.
  • Direct: He said, "Honesty is the best policy."
    Indirect: He said that honesty is the best policy.
  • (iii) यदि Reporting verb Past Tense में हो तो निम्नलिखित परिवर्तन होते हैं:

   

  Present	Past
  go	went
  is/are/am	was/were
  has/have/gone	had gone
  has/have been going	had been going
  went	had gone
  was/were going	had been going

• Past Perfect तथा Past Perfect Continuous Tense में परिवर्तन नहीं होता है।

• 7. कुछ विशेष शब्दों में परिवर्तन -

  Direct	Indirect	Direct	Indirect
  Now	Then	These	Those
  Here	There	Hither	Thither
  Today	That day	Hence	Thence
  Tonight	That night	Thus	So
  Tomorrow	The next day	Ago	Before
  Yesterday	The previous day	Just	Then
  This	That

  8. शब्दों तथा शब्द-क्रम में परिवर्तन -

  (i) Yes - Replied in the affirmative or agreeing or agreed (surely, certainly, well, very well, pretty well etc.) के लिए भी यही परिवर्तन होगा।
  No - Replied in the negative.

  (ii) Sir/Madam/your honour/My lord/your majesty के लिए with respect या respectfully लिखते हैं और इन शब्दों को हटा देते हैं।
  Dear/Darling = Respectfully (बड़ों के लिए) Lovingly (बराबर उम्र में) Affectionately (छोटों के लिए) यह परिवर्तन होता है।

  9. अन्य परिवर्तन -

  (i) यदि Reported speech में दोहरे Subject हो तो उनमें से पहले को Reporting Object बना लेते हैं जैसे -
  He said, "Mohan, Brother you are not serious." (Direct)
  He told brother Mohan that he was not serious. (Indirect)

  (ii) यदि Reported Speech में दोहरे Subject और Verb आये तो उन्हें Reporting Subject या Reporting Verb में मिला देते हैं जैसे -
  He said, "I hope I will pass." (Direct)
  He hoped that he would pass. (Indirect)

  (iii) सम्बोधन के वाक्यों में विशेषण होने पर addressing as और यदि विशेषण न हो तो addressing लिखते हैं।
  (a) "O noble prince, said Savitri to Satyavan, "I love you." (Direct)
  Addressing as noble prince Savitri told Satyavan that she loved him.

  (b) "O Prince" said Savitri "I love you." (Direct)
  Addressing prince Savitri said that she loved him.
  Or
  Savitri addressed prince that she loved him.
  (इस प्रकार से लिखना तभी उचित होगा जब Reporting object न हो)

  (iv) सम्बोधन के कुछ अन्य तरह के वाक्य होते हैं, जैसे -
  "Fool" said she, "Have you broken the plate." (Direct)
  Calling as fool she said that he had broken the plate. (Indirect)
  लेकिन निकट का सम्बन्ध होने पर as नहीं लगता है -
  "My son" said mother, "You are lazy." (Direct)
  Calling her son, mother said that he was lazy. (Indirect)
  Or
  Mother told her son that he was lazy.

  (v) Let के वाक्यों में निम्न प्रकार परिवर्तन किया जा सकता है -
  He said, "Let me go home." (Direct)
  He proposed to let him go home. (Indirect)
  Or
  He proposed to go home.

• Or
  He proposed that he should go home.
  (vi) अभिवादनसूचक शब्दों के वाक्यों को निम्न प्रकार बदलते हैं -
  Mohan said, "Good morning Hari". (Direct)
  Mohan bade Hari Good Morning. (Indirect)

  Or
  Mohan bade Good morning to Hari.
  (vii) How/What से प्रारम्भ Exclamatory वाक्यों का परिवर्तन निम्नलिखित प्रकार करते हैं -

  (i) He said, "What a fine picture it is !" (Direct)
  He exclaimed that it was very fine picture. (Indirect)

  (ii) He said, "How miserable his life is !" (Direct)
  He exclaimed that his life was very miserable. (Indirect)

  Tenses

  Present Tense

  (i) Present Indefinite Tense का प्रयोग -

  1. वर्तमान क्रिया (what takes place at the present moment) -
     I read. मैं पढ़ता हूँ।
     I go. मैं जाता हूँ।

  2. सत्य कथन (general truth)
     Man is mortal. मनुष्य नाशवान है।
     The sun rises in the east. सूरज पूर्व से निकलता है।

  3. स्वभाव या रस्म रिवाज (habit or custom)
     I get up at four every morning.
     The Muslims bury their dead.

  4. किसी भूतकाल का वर्णन (historic present)
     Now Babar attacks the army of Ibrahim Lodi.
     Now Mahatma Gandhi delivers his speech.

  5. प्राकृतिक क्रिया (natural action)
     Dogs bark, apes gibber, cows graze, cats mew.

  6. किसी भविष्य घटना का कथन (future action)
     I leave for Agra tomorrow.

  7. किसी लेखक का कथन लिखना (to quote authors)
     Shakespeare says, "All that glitters is not gold."

  (ii) Present Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -

  1. जब कोई काम वर्तमान काल में कहते समय जारी होता है -
     I am reading a book. मैं एक पुस्तक पढ़ रहा हूँ।

  2. भविष्य में होने वाले कार्य का विवरण करते समय -
     I am going to Varanasi tomorrow. मैं कल बनारस जा रहा हूँ।

  (iii) Present Perfect Tense का प्रयोग -

  1. जब कोई कार्य अभी समाप्त हुआ हो -
     She has learnt her lesson.

• 2. किसी भूतकाल की क्रिया का वर्णन किया जाये और उसका परिणाम अब भी हो रहा हो। I have purchased this book five months ago. अर्थात् मैंने पुस्तक पाँच महीने पूर्व ली थी और अब भी मैं उससे काम ले रहा हूँ।

  (iv) Present Perfect Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -

  1. इसके प्रयोग में बहुत सावधानी रखनी चाहिए। कोई कार्य जो भूतकाल में प्रारम्भ हुआ हो और अब भी हो रहा हो, समय दिया हो, तब इसका प्रयोग होता है। I have been reading in this college for three years. न कि I am reading in this college for three years. Note - इन वाक्यों में Since या for का प्रयोग होता है। जब निश्चित दिन, महीना दिया गया हो तो Since का प्रयोग करना चाहिए अन्यथा for का।

  Past Tense

  (i) Past Indefinite Tense का प्रयोग - इस Tense में निम्नलिखित बातों का बोध होता है -

  1. भूतकाल की क्रिया का - He did work.

  2. भूतकाल में रहने वाली आदत या रस्म-रिवाज का - (a) He took his bath daily in the Ganges last year.
     (b) The Hindu widows burnt themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

  3. जिस समय बात कही जा रही थी, उस समय कोई कार्य हो रहा हो। While he drew water from the well, I bathed.

  (ii) Past Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -
  जब कोई कार्य भूतकाल में हो रहा हो -
  He was going to school yesterday.

  (iii) Past Perfect Tense का प्रयोग -
  Past Perfect में ऐसे काम का बोध कराता है जो भूतकाल में दूसरे काम के आरम्भ होने से पहले समाप्त हो चुका हो।
  He had finished the work before he came.

  (iv) Past Perfect Continuous का प्रयोग -

  जब Past Continuous वाक्य में दिया हो। “Past Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action that had been going on for some time before another action took place”. He had been living at Agra for two years, before he got B. A. degree.
  We had been playing all the while from ten to four.
  हम बराबर दस बजे से चार बजे तक खेलते रहे हैं।

  Future Tense

  (i) Future Indefinite Tense का प्रयोग -
  इस Tense में भविष्य का बोध होता है -
  I shall go tomorrow.

  (ii) Future Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -
  ऐसे काम को प्रकट करता है जो भविष्य में किसी समय जारी होगा।
  I shall be coming to you then.

  (iii) Future Perfect Tense का प्रयोग -
  यह ऐसे काम का बोध कराता है जो किसी निश्चित समय पर भविष्य में समाप्त होगा।
  I shall have finished my work by tomorrow evening.

  (iv) Future Perfect Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -
  इसमें ऐसे कार्य का बोध होता है जो भविष्य में प्रारम्भ होगा और कुछ काल तक लगातार जारी रहेगा।

2. किसी भूतकाल की क्रिया का वर्णन किया जाये और उसका परिणाम अब भी हो रहा हो। I have purchased this book five months ago. अर्थात् मैंने पुस्तक पाँच महीने पूर्व ली थी और अब भी मैं उससे काम ले रहा हूँ।

(iv) Present Perfect Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -

1. इसके प्रयोग में बहुत सावधानी रखनी चाहिए। कोई कार्य जो भूतकाल में प्रारम्भ हुआ हो और अब भी हो रहा हो, समय दिया हो, तब इसका प्रयोग होता है। I have been reading in this college for three years. न कि I am reading in this college for three years. Note - इन वाक्यों में Since या for का प्रयोग होता है। जब निश्चित दिन, महीना दिया गया हो तो Since का प्रयोग करना चाहिए अन्यथा for का।

Past Tense

(i) Past Indefinite Tense का प्रयोग - इस Tense में निम्नलिखित बातों का बोध होता है -

1. भूतकाल की क्रिया का - He did work.

2. भूतकाल में रहने वाली आदत या रस्म-रिवाज का - (a) He took his bath daily in the Ganges last year.
   (b) The Hindu widows burnt themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

3. जिस समय बात कही जा रही थी, उस समय कोई कार्य हो रहा हो। While he drew water from the well, I bathed.

(ii) Past Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -

जब कोई कार्य भूतकाल में हो रहा हो -
He was going to school yesterday.

(iii) Past Perfect Tense का प्रयोग -
Past Perfect में ऐसे काम का बोध कराता है जो भूतकाल में दूसरे काम के आरम्भ होने से पहले समाप्त हो चुका हो।
He had finished the work before he came.

(iv) Past Perfect Continuous का प्रयोग -

जब Past Continuous वाक्य में दिया हो। “Past Perfect Continuous is used to denote an action that had been going on for some time before another action took place”. He had been living at Agra for two years, before he got B. A. degree.
We had been playing all the while from ten to four.
हम बराबर दस बजे से चार बजे तक खेलते रहे हैं।

Future Tense

(i) Future Indefinite Tense का प्रयोग -
इस Tense में भविष्य का बोध होता है -
I shall go tomorrow.

(ii) Future Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -
ऐसे काम को प्रकट करता है जो भविष्य में किसी समय जारी होगा।
I shall be coming to you then.

(iii) Future Perfect Tense का प्रयोग -
यह ऐसे काम का बोध कराता है जो किसी निश्चित समय पर भविष्य में समाप्त होगा।
I shall have finished my work by tomorrow evening.

(iv) Future Perfect Continuous Tense का प्रयोग -
इसमें ऐसे कार्य का बोध होता है जो भविष्य में प्रारम्भ होगा और कुछ काल तक लगातार जारी रहेगा।

• "It is used to denote an action that will have been going on at, or before, some point of time in the future".
  (a) Sita will have been playing with dolls for an hour before her mother comes.
  (b) He will have been playing in the field, until the sun sets.

  Tense के अनुसार Active Voice से Passive Voice बनाने के नियम

  जब कर्ता (Subject) स्वयं क्रिया करता है तो उसे कर्तृवाच्य (Active Voice) कहते हैं।

• Ram plays cricket.
  जब कर्म (Object) के रूप में तथा कर्ता (Subject) को कर्म (Object) के रूप में लिखा जाता है तो उसे कर्मवाच्य (Passive Voice) कहते हैं। यथा -
  Cricket is played by Ram.
  निम्नलिखित आठ रूपों में Active वाक्य Passive Voice बनाये जाते हैं।

  (i) Present Indefinite Tense
  Active - S + V1 + O. I play cricket.
  Passive - O + Be (is, am, are) + V3 +O. Cricket is played by him.

  (ii) Past Indefinite Tense
  Active - S + V2 + O. He played cricket.
  Passive - Be, (was, were) + V3 + O. Cricket was played by him.

  (iii) Future Indefinite Tense
  Active - S + will/shall + V1 + O. He will play cricket.
  Passive - O + will/shall + Be + V3 + S. Cricket will be played by him.

  (iv) Present Continuous Tense
  Active - S + is/am/are + V1xx ing + O. He is playing cricket.
  Passive - O + Is/am/are+being+V3+ S. Cricket is being played by him.

  (v) Past Continuous Tense
  Active - S + was/were + V1xx ing + O. He was playing cricket.
  Passive - O + was/were + Being V3 + S. Cricket was played by him.

  (vi) Present Perfect Tense
  Active - S + has/have + V3 + O. He has played cricket
  Passive - O + has/have + been + V3 + S. Cricket has been played by him.

  (vii) Past Perfect Tense
  Active - S + had + V3 + O. He had played cricket.
  Passive - O + had + been + V3 + S. Cricket had been played by him.

  (viii) Future Perfect Tense
  Active - S + will/shall/have + V3 + O. He will have played cricket.
  Passive - O + will/shall/have + been + V3 + S Cricket will have been played by him.

  Passive Voice of the Verbs having two Objects -
  यदि किसी Transitive verb के दो Objects होते हैं तो किसी को भी Subject बनाया जा सकता है, यथा - He gave me a book. (Active)
  (i) I was given book by him. (Passive)
  (ii) A book was given to me by him. (Passive)

  Passive Voice of the Preposition Verbs -
  जब कोई Intransitive Verb किसी Preposition को लेकर Transitive Verb बन जाता है तब उसके Object को Subject बनाकर Passive बनाते हैं।

• The dog ran at the cat: (Active)
  The cat was run at by the dog. (Passive)

  Passive Voice of the Transitive Verbs in the Imperative Mood

  Imperative Mood की Passive बनाने में Let का प्रयोग करते हैं -
  (i) Take this book. (Active)
  Let this book be taken by you. (Passive)
  (ii) Do this work. (Active)
  Let this work be done. (Passive)

  Exercise

  Fill in the blanks with suitable forms of the verb (tense) given in brackets :

  1. Sohan always ....... (come) to school on time.
  2. He realised that he ....... (take) the wrong road.
  3. The old man ....... (fall) as he ....... (cross) the street.
  4. I ...... to school, I lost my umbrella. (go)
  5. My friend ....... (come) to visit me next month.
  6. He ..... asleep while he was driving. (fall)
  7. If we ....... at 1.00 we will reach by 8 o' clock. (start)
  8. I ....... a lot of work today. (do)

  Answer

  1. Sohan always comes to school on time.
  2. He realised that he took the wrong road.
  3. The old man fell as he crossed the street.
  4. I went to school, I lost my umbrella.
  5. My friend will come to visit me next month.
  6. He fell asleep while he was driving.
  7. If we start at 1.00 we will reach by 8 o' clock.
  8. I have to do a lot of work today.

  Exercise

  In each of the following sentences, supply a verb in agreement with its subject :
  (i) Many an attempt ....... been made to climb Mount Everest.
  (ii) The shop, with all its contents ....... insured.
  (iii) Neither of my uncles ....... any children.

  Answer

  (i) Many an attempt has been made to climb Mount Everest.
  (ii) The shop, with all its contents was insured.
  (iii) Neither of my uncles has any children.

  Synonyms

  Synonyms are the words having very nearly the same meaning with another.
  As we have two words air and wind, they are same in meaning but they are different in their use. For example :
  Air : (It means the air that we breath.)
  Wind : (It means the wind that which makes the leaves of trees move.)
  The list of such synonyms is given below :

  1. Abandon (to give up entirely motor car, ship, vehicle, building etc. त्याग देना) - The old building of District Hospital has been abandoned.

• Forsake (to give up one's company साथ छोड़ देना) - Mohan has forsaken his friend Ram when Ram needs him badly.
  Abdicate (to give up throne or post सिंहासन या पद का त्याग करना) - Bharta abdicated for his elder brother Rama.

  2. Abhor (to shun, reject vehemently तिरस्कार, अस्वीकार करना) - Shashi abhorred the marriage proposal.
  Despise (to regard with contempt घृणा की दृष्टि से तिरस्कार करना) - He answered in such a way as he wanted to despise him.

  3. Abolish (to put an end to the existence उन्मूलन करना) - The government must follow such policies by which the problem of unemployment must be abolished.
  Finish (complete समाप्त होना) - We hope that Mahesh will finish his work in the appointed period of time.
  
  4. Abide (to wait for or to live प्रतीक्षा करना, रहना) - Murari lal abode in Delhi.
  Dwell (to live रहना) - Lencho dwelt on the crest of a low hill.
  
  |5. Act (to do what is required कार्य करना) - Act the way that the people around you are acting.
  Action (manner of bodily movement शारीरिक हरकत) - Kapil's action of bowling is quite different.
  
  6. Admit (to let in, allow भरना स्वीकारना) - This theatre admits only two hundred persons.
  Confess (to acknowledge that one has done wrong गलती मानना) - The prisoner refused to confess.
  
  7. Advantage (something useful, लाभ या फायदा) - Nobody should try to get the advantage of the underdogs.
  Gain (to get as a result of one's efforts, प्रयासों से लाभ अर्जित करना) - It is a proverb that says that no gain, without pain.
  
  8. Adept (expert, कुशल या पारंगत) - Mr. Shukla is adept in dealing public affairs.
  Dexterous (skilful with the hands, हस्तकला में पारंगत) - M.F. Hussain is dexterous in art.
  
  9. Aim (act of aiming, निशाना या लक्ष्य) - Arjuna did not his aim.
  Purpose (design; intention, अभिप्राय या इरादा) - What is your purpose in answering him so rudely ?
  
  10. Air ('air' is that we breath, हवा) - We cannot live without air.
  Wind ('wind' is what makes the leaves of the trees move, वायु) - The wind stopped blowing in the evening.
  
  11. Allow (to abstain from refusal, अनुमति देना) Please allow me to carry your bag.
  Permit (to give a decided assent, आज्ञा देना) - Smoking is not permitted in the theatre.
  
  12. Ancient (belonging to times long past, opposed to modern, प्राचीन) - This is an ancient looking hat.
  Old (with a period of time and age; opposed to young and new, पुराना) - He is forty years old.
  
  13. Answer (say or write in return, उत्तर) - No one was able to answer him a word.
  Reply (reply to a letter, telegram, charge, etc., पत्र का उत्तर) - She has sent a reply-paid telegram.
  
  14. Banish (send away out of the country, देश निकाल देना) - Tasleema Nasrin has been banished for her controversial writings.  
  Dismiss (to remove from office or service, सेवाएं समाप्त करना या नौकरी से निकाल देना) - Hari is dismissed from his job for not doing his duty properly.  
  
  15. Build (to construct, निर्माण करना) - A multi-storey building is built on high-way.  
  Make (to prepare, तैयार करना) - She made tea for all of us.  
  
  16. Cause (A 'cause' is that which produces a result, कारण) - You have no cause for complaint.  
  Reason (A ‘reason’ is that which explains a result, तर्क) - There is reason to believe that he is dishonest.  
  
  17. Centre (‘centre’ is a definite point, केन्द्र) - The centre of earth's gavity is not yet known.  
  Middle (‘middle’ is the indefinite space near or around the centre, मध्य) - A good story has a beginning, a middle and an end.  
  
  18. Character (mental or moral qualities that make one person different from others, चरित्र) - Character building is the chief aim of education.  
  Conduct (moral behaviour, व्यवहार) - He was awarded a prize for his good conduct.  
  
  19. Contagious (of disease spreading by touch, संक्रामक, छूआछूत वाली बीमारी) - Scarlet fever is contagious.  
  Infectious (of disease that can be spread by means of germs, फैलने वाली) - "Tuberculosis is an infectious disease.  
  
  20. Cool (implies pleasant sensation, ठण्डा) - The rain has cooled the air.  
  Cold (low temperature specially in atmosphere, अति ठण्डा) - Do not stay outside in the cold. 

  Antonyms

  Antonym means the words that give the opposite meaning of any word. There is a list of words and their antonyms.

• Words - Meanings - Antonyms
  Ability - योग्यता - Inability
  Above - ऊपर - Below
  Abhor - घृणा करना - Love
  Abuse - गाली देना - Praise
  Accept - स्वीकार करना - Refuse
  Accurate - शुद्ध - Inaccurate
  Admit - मानना - Deny
  Admire - प्रशंसा करना - Criticise
  Adversity - विपत्ति - Fortune
  Alive - जीवित - Dead
  Agree - सहमत होना - Disagree
  Angry - क्रोधित होना - Happy
  Aware - परिचित - Unaware
  Appear - दिखाई पड़ना - Disappear
  Barbarous - असभ्य - Civilized
  Benefit - लाभ - Loss
  Beginning - आरम्भ - End
  Big - बड़ा - Small
  Blunt - कुशाग्र - Sharp
  Bright - चमकीला - Dull
  Believe - विश्वास करना - Disbelieve
  Blame - दोष लगाना - Approve
  Construct - निर्माण करना - Destroy
  Cowardice - कायरता - Bravery
  Close - निकट - Far
  Continue - जारी रखना - Discontinue
  Cheerful - प्रसन्न - Gloomy
  Cruel - निर्दयी - Kind
  Cool - ठण्डा - Warm
  Compare - तुलना करना - Contrast
  Confidence - विश्वास - Diffidence
  Concord - सामंजस्य - Discord
  Complicated - जटिल - Simple
  Courageous - साहसी - Timid
  Converge - पास आना - Diverge
  Cautions - सावधान - Reckless
  Creation - निर्माण - Destruction
  Coward - कायर - Bold
  Cunning - चालाक - Fool
  Catch - पकड़ना - Leave
  Deep - गहरा - Shallow [2019]
  Desolate - निर्जन - Inhabited
  Docile - विनीत - Stubborn
  Decorate - सजाना - Spoil
  Denounce - निन्दा करना - Praise
  Domestic - घरेलू - Wild
  Distress - संकट - Comfort
  Demand - माँग - Supply
  Deficit - घाटा - Surplus
  Dwarf - बौना - Giant
  Dull - नीरस - Interesting
  Dynamic - गतिशील - Static
  Diverge - दूर होना - Converge
  Diminish - घटना - Increase
  Difficult - कठिन - Easy
  Deposit - जमा करना - Withdraw 
  Debtor - कर्ज़दार - Creditor 
  Disclose - प्रकट करना - Conceal 
  Enjoyment - आनन्द - Suffering 
  Eligible - उपयुक्त - Ineligible 
  Empty - खाली - Full 
  Earn - कमाना - Spend 
  Enjoy - आनन्द लेना - Suffer 
  Early - शीघ्र - Late 
  Extend - बढ़ाना - Limit 
  Enough - पर्याप्त - Insufficient 
  Emerge - निकलना - Disappear 
  Encourage - साहस बढ़ाना - Discourage 
  Endeavour - प्रयास करना - Sit idle 
  Enemy - शत्रु - Friend 
  Eradicate - नष्ट करना - Build 
  Esteem - सम्मान - Insult 
  Freedom - स्वतन्त्रता - Slavery 
  Front - सामने का भाग - Back 
  Frown - भौं सिकोड़ना - Smile 
  Fresh - ताज़ा - Stale 
  Full - भरा हुआ - Empty 
  Firm - दृढ़ - Wavering 
  Faithful - स्वामिभक्त - Unfaithful 
  Facility - सुविधा - Difficulty 
  Fierce - भयानक - Gentle 
  
  

  Translation

  Essentials of a Good Translation
  

  सर्वोत्कृष्ट अनुवाद की कुछ अपनी विशेषताएँ होती हैं। इनका ज्ञान अनुवाद के लिए परमावश्यक होता है। अनुवाद के लिए निम्नलिखित बातों पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए - 

  1. अनुवाद यथातथ्य होना चाहिए। वाक्य में जो कुछ दिया हो, उससे कम या अधिक नहीं करना चाहिए। उसके भाव में न हम कुछ जोड़ सकते हैं और न हम उसमें अपनी तरफ से कुछ घटा सकते हैं। 

  2. वाक्य की रचना एक ही प्रकार की होनी चाहिए। 

  3. वाक्य के लव्जक्रम में कोई परिवर्तन नहीं करना चाहिए। 

  4. विशेषण तथा क्रियापद आदि के प्रयोग पर भी ध्यान देना चाहिए। 

  5. शब्दों का प्रयोग पूरी सोच-समझकर करना चाहिए ताकि अनुवाद करने वाले का भाव व विचार पर कोई असर न आए। 

  6. प्रायः और परोक्ष कथनों का प्रयोग यथायोग्य सतर्कता से करना चाहिए। 

  7. अनुवाद के शब्द के लिए शब्द, वाक्यांश के लिए वाक्यांश, उपवाक्य के लिए उपवाक्य तथा वाक्य के लिए वाक्य की रचना होनी चाहिए। 

  8. जहाँ शाब्दिक अर्थ सम्भव न हो, वहाँ भावात्मक अनुवाद करना चाहिए।

  9. यदि संभव हो मुहावरेदार भाषा का अनुवाद मुहावरेदार ही हो। 

  10. अनुवाद करते समय जिन शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाये, वे सरल, उपयुक्त व्यावहारिक और बोधगम्य हों। 

  11. अनुवाद करने में वाक्य छोटे और सरल होने चाहिए। 

  12. संयुक्त या मिश्रित वाक्यों का अनुवाद करते समय सतर्कता बरतनी चाहिए। 

  13. कठिन, संस्कृत एवं उर्दू से आये हुए शब्दों का भावानुवाद किया जाना चाहिए। 

  14. अनुवाद करते समय विशेषण (Adjective) तथा क्रिया विशेषण (Adverb) पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए। 

  15. अनुवाद करते समय मूल भाषा में प्रयुक्त शब्द के समानार्थी शब्द का ही प्रयोग किया जाना चाहिए। 

  16. अनुवाद में यथार्थिकता एवं सम्पूर्णता होनी चाहिए यथासंभव अनुवाद कमी-कमी नीरस लगता है। 

  17. अनुवाद विषयानुकूल होना चाहिए। 

  18. अनुवाद केवल अनुकृति मात्र ही नहीं होना चाहिए। 

  19. अनुवाद रचनात्मक एवं प्रभावपूर्ण होना चाहिए। 

  20. अनुवाद करते समय प्रतिकात्मक शब्दों के लिए समानार्थी शब्दों का प्रयोग करना चाहिए। 

  21. व्याकरण की शुद्धता पर ध्यान देना चाहिए। 

  22. अनुवाद क्यों का क्यों होना चाहिए। 

  23. अनुवाद करते समय वाक्य क्रम पर अवश्य ध्यान देना चाहिए। 

  Translation from Hindi to English 

  Exercise 1

  स्वतन्त्र भारत में भ्रष्टाचार की समस्या बड़ी जटिल और गम्भीर हो गई है। सभी अपने-अपने प्रकार से धन खींचने में लगे हैं। कुछ विचारकों का कहना है कि यह समस्या ऊपर से नीचे की ओर चलती है जबकि भवन का निर्माण नीचे से ऊपर की ओर होता है किन्तु पलस्तर, पुताई, ऊपर से नीचे की ओर चला करती है। इसी प्रकार भ्रष्टाचार भी ऊपर-ऊपर पद वाले सम्भ्रान्त व्यक्ति शुरू करते हैं फिर बाद में नीचे वाले इस बुरे कार्य को करते हैं। इसके उन्मूलन के लिए सरकार ने विभाग भी खोले हैं। कहते हैं कि वे भी भ्रष्टाचार का एक उपकरण बन गये हैं।

  
  The problem of corruption in free India has become very serious and complicated. Everyone is engaged in drawing money in his own way. It is the statement of some thinkers that this problem proceeds from upper level to lower level as a house is constructed from lower level to upper level but the work of plastering and white washing is done from upper level to lower level. Similarly capable persons on high posts begin corruption at first. Then people at the lower level do this evil deed. For its abolition the government has opened departments. People say that they have also become instrument of corruption.

  Translation from English to Hindi 

  Exercise 1

  We had already reached station before the arrival of the train. Some people had already reached station. We had hardly reached to platform after buying the tickets when the train came. Our coolie had made our luggage in the coach before we took the entry into the coach. Somebody had picked the pocket of a traveller before he sat in the coach. That pick-pocket had run away before he would have been caught by the police. The train reached to Kanpur before the morning. Our friends had reached to the station to receive us before we reached.

  
  गाड़ी आने से पहले ही हम स्टेशन पहुँच गये थे। कुछ लोग पहले से ही स्टेशन पर पहुँच चुके थे। हम टिकट खरीदकर प्लेटफार्म पर पहुँचे ही थे कि गाड़ी आ गई। हमारे कुली ने सामान कोच में रख दिया था। एक व्यक्ति का जेब काट लिया गया था। जेबकतरा पुलिस के पकड़ में आने से पहले ही भाग गया। गाड़ी सुबह से पहले कानपुर पहुँच गई। हमारे मित्र हमें स्टेशन पर लेने पहुँच गये थे। पहले ही हमारे कुली ने हमारा सामान अन्दर पहुँचा दिया था। एक यात्री ने गाड़ी में बैठने से पहले ही किसी ने उसकी जेब काट ली। इससे पहले कि पुलिस जेबकतरे को पकड़ पाती, वह भाग गया। स्टेशन में पहुँचने से पहले ही गाड़ी कानपुर पहुँच चुकी थी। हमारे पहुँचने से पहले ही हमारे मित्र लोग हमारे स्वागत के लिए स्टेशन पर पहुँच चुके थे।

• Sentences

  Meaning and Definition of Sentence
  (वाक्य का अर्थ एवं परिभाषा)

  किसी भी भाषा में अपने भावों को व्यक्त करने के लिए कुछ शब्दों की आवश्यकता होती है। प्रत्येक भाषा की व्याकरण (Grammar) के अनुसार शब्दों को एक निश्चित क्रम में रखकर शब्द-समूह को अर्थयुक्त बनाया जाता है। इस अर्थयुक्त शब्द-समूह को वाक्य (Sentence) कहते हैं।

  Definition (परिभाषा) – A sentence is that group of words which expresses its complete and clear meaning. एक वाक्य शब्दों का वह समूह होता है जो अपना सम्पूर्ण एवं स्पष्ट अर्थ व्यक्त करता है। उदाहरण –

  (i) Ram is a good boy.
  (ii) He goes to school daily.
  उपरोक्त वाक्यों का अर्थ स्पष्ट : ‘राम एक अच्छा लड़का है’ तथा ‘वह विद्यालय जाता है’।

  Parts of Sentence –

• एक वाक्य के दो भाग होते हैं – (i) Subject (उद्देश्य) एवं (ii) Predicate (विधेय)।

  (i) Subject – Subject is that part of sentence in which something is said about a person, place or thing.
  उद्देश्य वाक्य का वह भाग है जिसमें किसी वस्तु, व्यक्ति या स्थान के विषय में कुछ कहा जाता है।

  (ii) Predicate – Predicate is that part of sentence in which something is said about the subject.
  विधेय वाक्य का वह भाग है जिसमें Subject (कर्ता) के विषय में कुछ कहा जाता है।

  उदाहरण –

  1. Ram is a good boy.
     इस वाक्य में ‘Ram’ के विषय में बताया गया है और यह बताया गया है कि वह ‘is a good boy’ है। अतः इस वाक्य में ‘Ram’ Subject तथा ‘is a good boy’ Predicate है।

  2. I am reading a book.
     इस वाक्य में ‘I’ के विषय में बताया गया है और यह बताया गया है कि ‘am reading a book’। अतः इस वाक्य में ‘I’ Subject तथा ‘am reading a book’ predicate है।

  
  

  1. Qualifier – Qualifier subject का वह भाग होता है जो मुख्य कर्ता की विशेषता बताता है।

  उदाहरण – Honest men are praised by all.

  इस वाक्य में Honest शब्द men शब्द की विशेषता बता रहे हैं। अतः Honest qualifier है। Qualifier के दो भाग होते हैं –

  (a) Determiner – Determiner Qualifier का वह भाग है जो Qualifying word या Phrase को निर्देशित करता है। ये प्रायः articles, demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives या adjective of quality होते हैं।

• उदाहरण –

  A fat boy is coming. इस वाक्य में ‘A’ ‘fat boy’ को निर्देशित कर रहा है अतः यह Determiner है।

• (b) Qualifying Word – Qualifying words मुख्य कर्ता की विशेषता बताते हैं। ये प्रायः Adjective of Quality होते हैं।

• उदाहरण -

• A fat boy is coming वाक्य में ‘fat’ शब्द boy की विशेषता बता रहा है। अतः यह Qualifying word है।

  (c) Qualifying Phrase – कभी-कभी वाक्य में दो या दो से अधिक शब्द मिलकर मुख्य कर्ता की विशेषता बताते हैं। ये शब्द समूह मुख्य कर्ता के पहले या बाद में दोनों जगह प्रयुक्त होते हैं। इसे Qualifying Phrase या Adjectival Phrase कहा जाता है।

  उदाहरण – Some flowers in the pot are yellow.

  इस वाक्य में ‘in the pot’ शब्द समूह flowers की विशेषता बता रहे हैं अतः ये शब्द समूह Qualifying Phrase है।

  2. Head Word – ये शब्द क्रिया के मुख्य कर्ता को व्यक्त करते हैं। ये शब्द प्रायः Noun या Pronoun होते हैं। इन्हें main word भी कहते हैं।

• उदाहरण –

• A fat boy is coming. इस वाक्य में आने की क्रिया ‘boy’ कर रहा है। अतः यह वाक्य का Head word है।

  

  1. Verb – कार्य के करने या होने को व्यक्त होने वाले शब्द verb कहलाते हैं।
     उदाहरण – Ram goes to school.
     इस वाक्य में जाने का कार्य हुआ है अतः Verb ‘goes’ है।

  2. Object – Object वे शब्द होते हैं जिनके लिए क्रिया की जाती है या जिन पर क्रिया का प्रभाव पड़ता है।
     उदाहरण – Ram plays football.
     इस वाक्य में football खेलने के लिए क्रिया हुई है अतः Football वाक्य का Object है।

     Object दो प्रकार होते हैं –

     (a) Direct Object – क्रिया के साथ ‘क्या’ लगाकर प्रश्न करने पर जो उत्तर मिलता है, वह direct object होता है।
     उदाहरण – Ram gave me a book.
     इस वाक्य में ‘दिया’ क्रिया के साथ ‘क्या’ लगाकर प्रश्न करने पर book उत्तर मिलता है। अतः book वाक्य में Direct object है।
     (b) Indirect Object – क्रिया के साथ ‘किसको’ लगाकर प्रश्न करने पर जो उत्तर मिलता है, उसे indirect object कहते हैं। उपर्युक्त उदाहरण में ‘दिया’ क्रिया के साथ ‘किसको’ लगाकर प्रश्न करने पर ‘me’ उत्तर मिलता है अतः ‘me’ वाक्य का Indirect object है।

  3. Complement – कुछ क्रियाओं के साथ पूरक शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है। ये शब्द object नहीं होते हैं। अतः इन्हें Complements कहा जाता है।

  Types of Sentences

  वाक्य (Sentence) के अर्थ के अनुसार वाक्य निम्नलिखित 5 प्रकार के होते हैं –

  1. Assertive Sentence (विधेयात्मक वाक्य) – जिन वाक्यों से किसी घटना का वर्णन…या कोई साधारण बात कही जाती है वे Assertive Sentence (विधि सूचक वाक्य) कहलाते हैं।

     उदाहरण –

  2. Ram is a good boy.

  3. I do not play cricket.

  4. I am reading a book.

  5. Hira cooks food.

  Assertive sentences दो प्रकार के होते हैं –

  (i) Affirmative Sentences – जो वाक्य सकारात्मक अर्थ रखते हैं वे Affirmative Sentences (सकारात्मक वाक्य) होते हैं।
   उदाहरण –
   1. Teacher is teaching in the class.
   2. Mohan is going to school.
   3. Hari plays cricket.
   4. I am reading a book.

  (ii) Negative Sentences – जो वाक्य नकारात्मक अर्थ रखते हैं वे Negative Sentences (नकारात्मक वाक्य) होते हैं।
   उदाहरण –
   1. Dinesh does not go to school.
   2. I am not writing a letter.
   3. Mira is not cooking food.
   4. I do not read novels.

  2. Interrogative Sentences (प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य) – जो वाक्य प्रश्न करते हैं वे Interrogative Sentences (प्रश्नवाचक वाक्य) कहलाते हैं।
      उदाहरण –
      1. What are you doing here?
      2. Do you go to school daily?
      3. May I come in?
      4. Should I play cricket?

  3. Imperative Sentences (आज्ञार्थक वाक्य) – जो वाक्य Order (आज्ञा), Request (प्रार्थना, विनती), Advice (परामर्श), Suggestion (सुझाव), Direction (निर्देश) आदि प्रदर्शित करते हैं, वे Imperative Sentences (आज्ञार्थक वाक्य) कहलाते हैं।
      उदाहरण –
      1. Let us go for a walk.
      2. Sit down.
      3. Stand up.
      4. Open the door.

  4. Exclamatory Sentences (विस्मयादिबोधक वाक्य) – जिन वाक्यों से Surprise (आश्चर्य), Pity (दया), Wonder (कोतूहल), Sorrow (दुःख), Admiration (प्रशंसा) आदि मानसिक संवेदन का पता चलता है, Exclamatory Sentences (विस्मयादिबोधक वाक्य) कहलाते हैं।
      उदाहरण –
      1. What a beautiful flower!
      2. How quick her motions are!
      3. What a tragic end!
      4. How bad!

  5. Optative Sentences (इच्छाबोधक वाक्य) – जिन वाक्यों से किसी इच्छा (wish), आशीर्वाद (Blessing), शाप (curse), अभिवादन (Bade) का बोध होता हो, उन्हें Optative Sentences (इच्छाबोधक वाक्य) कहते हैं।
      उदाहरण –
      1. Go to hell!
      2. May God help you!
      3. Good morning.

  Idioms and Phrases

  1. To beat about the bush – (To talk irrelevantly). A good speaker does not beat about the bush when he speaks in a public meeting.

  2. To have a bee in one's bonnet – (To be eccentric). The old man seems to have a bee in his bonnet; for he changes his desire so many times.

  3. To beg the question – (To assume what is to be proved). You have not solved the problem correctly because you beg the question by assuming what is to be proved.

  4. To hit below the belt – (To take unfair advantage). While referring to his rival's private line he hit below the belt and thus played foul to him.

  5. To get better of – (To overcome). The fight seemed equal for a while, but he got the better of his enemy in the end.

  6. Between Scylla and Charybdis – (Between two dangers in which if a man avoids the one, he falls into the other). If he escapes the scylla of sensuality, he will run into the charybdis of drinking.

  7. Between the devil and the deep sea – (Between two equally great evils when there is no escape either way). He is between the devil and the deep sea, for he must either resign or face an enquiry into this case of embezzlement.

  8. To be on the horns of a dilemma – (To face a perplexing choice between two unpleasant things). My poor friend is on the horns of a dilemma, for if he goes abroad, he will break his wife's heart and if he does not, he will mar his future.

  9. To bid fair – (To give a promise of). This intelligent student bids fair to top the list this year in the university examination.

  10. To kill two birds with one stone – (To accomplish two purposes at once). He killed two birds with one stone, for he visited Kanpur and enjoyed the cricket match also.

  11. Birds of the same feather – (Persons of the same character). One thief likes to accompany another, for the birds of the same feather flock together.

  12. A bird of passage – (A temporary resident). My friend cannot settle in this city because he is a bird of passage.

  13. Bag and Baggage – (With all one's belongings). When he was transferred, he left Agra bag and baggage. [Kanpur 2014]

  14. A Black Sheep – (A disloyal person). The robber said that there was a black sheep in the gang who had betrayed its secret to the police.

  15. To Beat Black and Blue – (To thrash soundly). The police caught the thief and beat him black and blue.

  16. Blood is thicker than water – (One cannot ignore family ties). Blood is thicker than water, so he has appointed his brother incharge of this office.

  17. Bread and Butter – (Means of livelihood). It is a question of bread and butter, so he should not quarrel with his boss.

  18. To be born with a silver spoon – (To be born rich). Pt. Nehru was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.

  19. To go to the dogs – (To be ruined). This heavy loss will make his firm go to the dogs.

  20. To go to the wall – (To fare badly). The new hands will go to the wall due to this retrenchment in our factory.

• Proverbs

  Every culture has a collection of wise sayings that offer advice about how to live your life. These sayings are called “proverbs”.

  It is good to know the really common English proverbs because you hear them come up in conversation all the time. Sometimes people say the entire proverb to give advice to a friend. More often, someone will say just part of a proverb. But in any case the aim to say or to mention a proverb is the same.

  There is a list of some of the most important and well-known English proverbs. Below each one, there is a simple explanation.

• Note: Some of the meanings of these proverbs have shifted over the years, so a proverb might have originally had a different meaning than the one I explain.

  1. “Two wrongs don’t make a right.”
     • When someone has done something bad to you, trying to get revenge will only make things worse.

  2. “The pen is mightier than the sword.”
     • Trying to convince people with ideas and words is more effective than trying to force people to do what you want.

  3. “When in Rome, do as the Romans.”
     • Act the way that the people around you are acting.

  4. “The squeaky wheel gets the grease.”
     • You can get better service if you complain about something. If you wait patiently, no one is going to help you.

  5. “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
     • Strong people don’t give up when they come across challenges. They just work harder.

  6. “No man is an island.”
     • You can’t live completely independently. Everyone needs help from other people.

  7. “Fortune favours the bold.”
     • People who bravely go after what they want are more successful than people who try to live safely.

  8. “People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.”
     • Do not criticize other people if you are not perfect yourself.

  9. “Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst.”
     • We should be hopeful for the better tomorrow, but we must prepare ourselves to face the challenging circumstances.

  10. “Better late than never.”
      • It is better to do the work lately than never to do the work.

  11. “Birds of a feather flock together.”
      • People like to spend time with others who are similar to them.

• Picture Composition

  Composition

  Composition is common to both, written and spoken form. Composition is the selection and arrangement of words and development of thoughts. Fill in the blanks, conversation, letter writing, picture narration, story writing, précis writing, essay writing etc. are parts of composition. Composition is the selection, arrangement and development of ideas and their expression in appropriate written or spoken form. The aim of teaching composition is to enable the students to express their views in an organized manner. It encourages the students to write small sentences.

  Picture Composition – With the help of this technique the teacher provides oral practice to the students by means of showing picture and asking them questions. The teacher demonstrates picture by hanging it on the wall and asks questions about the picture. The students give answers. The teacher writes some traditional topics on the blackboard and students are asked to write the composition. Picture composition is very significant at the initial stage of the learning of language.

• Comprehension

  Comprehension विद्यार्थियों द्वारा भाषा को समझने की कुशलता को परखता है। इसके द्वारा यह आकलन किया जाता है कि विद्यार्थी का मानसिक अवबोधन पर आधारित बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्नों का आधार ग्रहण करने में कितना सक्षम है। इस प्रश्न में बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्नों के अतिरिक्त रिक्त स्थानों की पूर्ति के लिए एक प्रश्न और 'True-or-False' का एक प्रश्न हो सकता है। इस प्रश्न को हल करने के लिए निम्नलिखित निर्देशों का पालन करना चाहिए –

  1. विद्यार्थियों को दिये गए अवबोधन को ध्यानपूर्वक पढ़ना चाहिए।

  2. बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्नों को सावधानी से पढ़कर अवबोधन से उनका तात्पर्य मिलाना चाहिए।

  3. प्रश्नों के उत्तर लिखते समय उतनी ही जानकारी देनी चाहिए जितनी कि प्रश्न में वांछित है।

  4. अपनी ओर से किसी प्रकार से कोई व्याख्या नहीं करनी चाहिए और न कोई टिप्पणी देनी चाहिए।

  5. प्रश्न के Tense पर ध्यान देना चाहिए। प्रश्न का उत्तर भी उसी Tense में देना चाहिए जिस Tense में प्रश्न किया गया है।

  6. उत्तर देने में व्याकरण व वर्तनी की अशुद्धि से बचना चाहिए।

  7. ध्यान रहे कि सभी विकल्पों का चयन अवबोधन से ही किया जाना चाहिए। इसमें स्वयं की पसंद को नहीं लाना चाहिए। विकल्प अवबोधन से सम्बद्ध होने चाहिए।

  8. उत्तर देते समय अवबोधन को सम्पूर्ण वाक्य के साथ जोड़कर ही लिखना चाहिए, केवल विकल्प लिखकर उत्तर नहीं देना चाहिए।

  9. रिक्त स्थानों की पूर्ति सावधानिपूर्वक करनी चाहिए।

  10. विकल्पों के चयन में एक मत रहें, विकल्पों को लिखकर काट-छांट न करें। अवबोधन पर आधारित बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्नों के उत्तर उसी क्रम में रहें जिस क्रम में प्रश्न-पत्र में रखे गये हैं।

  11. True or False पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए। इनके सही या गलत होने का निर्णय अवबोधन के अनुसार ही होना चाहिए। स्वयं की इच्छा-अनिच्छा से इस प्रश्न का उत्तर नहीं देना चाहिए।

• Exercise 1

  Under the present system of mass education by classes, too much stress is laid on teaching and too little on active learning. The child is not encouraged to discover things on his own account. He learns to rely on outside help, not on his own powers, thus losing intellectual independence and all capacity to judge for himself. The over taught child is the father of the newspaper reading, advertisement believing, propaganda swallowing, demagogue-led man the man who makes modern democracy the force it is. Moreover the lessons in class leave him mainly unoccupied and therefore bored. He has to be coerced into learning what does not interest him, and the information acquired mechanically and reluctantly, by dint of mere repetition, is rapidly forgotten. Quite naturally the child being bored and unoccupied, is also mischievous. A strict external discipline becomes necessary, unless there is to be chaos and pandemonium. The child learns to obey, not to control himself. He losses moral as well as intellectual independence.

  Such are the main defects in the current system of mass education. Many others could be mentioned, but they are defects in detail and can be classified under one or the other of the three main categories of defects sacrifice of the individual to the system, psychologically unsound methods of teaching and irrational method of imposing discipline. We need a new system of universal education of the same kind. It has proved itself so successful in the training of defectives and infants, but modified so as to be suitable for older boys and girls. We need a system of individual education.

• Questions

  (I) Answer in English the following questions on the above passage –

  1. What is the defect of the present system of mass education?

  2. What is not done to the child?

  3. What does a child learn?

  4. What is the loss of the child?

  5. What does a child get from the lessons in class?

  6. What makes the child mischievous?

  7. What are the three categories of defects?

• Answers

  1. Under the present system of mass education by class, too much stress is laid on teaching and too little on active learning.

  2. The child is not encouraged to discover things on his own account.

  3. The child learns to rely on outside help. He does not rely on his own powers.

  4. The child loses intellectual independence and all capacity to judge for himself.

  5. The lessons in class leave him mainly unoccupied and therefore bored.

  6. As the child is bored and remains unoccupied, he becomes mischievous.

  7. The three main categories of defects are – sacrifice of the individual to the system, psychologically unsound methods of teaching and irrational method of imposing discipline.

• Figure of Speech

  Definitions
  
  1. Simile – In it a comparison is made between two objects of different kinds, which have, however, one point is common. It is generally introduced by the words as, like, so and such.
  
  Examples –
  (i) The soul was like a star and dwelt apart.
  (ii) My love is like a red, red rose.
  (iii) The Bishop was as good as gold.
  (iv) We bear her along, like a pearl on string.
  (v) She hangs like a star in the dew of our song.
  (vi) Errors like strains upon the surface flow.
  
  2. Metaphor – A Metaphor is an implied or compressed simile. In it points of comparison are. It is condensed or hidden simile.
  
  Examples –
  (i) Sardar Patel was a man of iron will.
  (ii) Life is a dream.
  (iii) Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
  (iv) She is a fen of stagnant water.
  (v) Whose armour is his honest thought.
• (vi) Love is the spice of life.
  (vii) Life is but a walking shadow.

• 3. Personification – In it lifeless objects and abstract ideas are thought of as persons having life.

  Examples –
  (i) Authority forgets a dying king.
  (ii) This sea that bares her bosom to the moon.
  (iii) Let not ambition mock their useful toil.
  (iv) Love is blind.
  (v) The wind lies asleep in the arms of the dawn like a child that has cried night.
  (vi) Hope springs eternal in human breast.

  4. Apostrophe – In Apostrophe the absent, the dead, the inanimate are addressed as if they are present or living.

  Examples –
  (i) O Solitude! Where is they char?
  (ii) O world! O life! O time.
  (iii) Milton! Thou should’st be living at this hour.
  (iv) O Judgement! Thou art fled to brutish beasts.
  (v) Exult, O shores! and ring O bells!
  (vi) Hail to thee blithe spirit?
    Bird thou never wert.
  (vii) O sweet content! Where is thy abode?

  5. Hyperbole – Hyperbole is an exaggerated expression in which things and ideas are expressed in a magnified language to secure a heightened effect.

  Examples –
  (i) All the perfumes of Arabia cannot bloody hand.
  (ii) Belinda smiled and all the world was gay.
  (iii) They were swifter than eagles.
  (iv) Ten thousand saw I at a glance.
  (v) The waves rose mountain high.
  (vi) Rivers of blood flowed in the battlefield.
  (vii) They build the nation’s pillars deep and lift them to the sky.

  6. Oxymoron – In Oxymoron two ideas of opposite meaning are combined.

  Examples –
  (i) Life is a bitter sweet.
  (ii) Tughlaq was the wisest fool to history.
  (iii) Love gives a pleasing pain.
  (iv) And having nothing he hath all.
  (v) Our sweetest songs are those that fell to saddest thoughts.
  (vi) He is idly busy now-a-days.
  (vii) This is an open secret.

• 7. Onomatopoeia – In Onomatopoeia the sound of the word suggests the sense or meaning.

  Examples –
  (i) A murmuring of innumerable bees.
  (ii) Thundering of guns greeted him.
  (iii) Cooing of doves delighted him.
  (iv) And beauty born of murmuring sound shall pass into her face.
  (v) I chatter, chatter as I flow,
    To joint the brimming river.
  (vi) I heard the water lapping on the crag.

• Precis Writing

  Precis writing is a precise and concise statement in writing of short form the subject of a very long passage which a busy man does not like to read for saving time. The art of precis-writing is something very useful. It helps a student, a lawyer, a judge or any other busy man to save time. If a journalist knows this art well, he saves much space on paper also. Time is money to a businessman so is space to a journalist.

• Essentials of a Good Precis

  Essentials of a good precis are as follows –

  1. Every good precis bears a suitable and significant title or heading.
     This heading consists of a key-phrase which forms the backbone of that sentence which contains the central or main idea or states the subject or topic being discussed in the entire passage. The sentence containing this central idea or key-phrase often occurs at the very beginning of a passage. We should remember that a phrase consists of two or three words only. This title is very useful to a man who has to refer to more than one precis at a time.

  2. The precis should be usually one third in its length when compared to the original passage. As a rule the precis should cover one page when the original passage does so in the question paper. If the original passage of a question paper is very small the precis will also be very small. When it fills half a page the precis may be one half and if it is very long the precis may be one tenth, one fourth and so on. The longer the passage is the smaller the precis will be and the smaller the passage is the longer its precis will be.

  3. The precis is always written in the third person.
      (a) When the original passage is in the third person and in the present tense, its precis is written in the third person and in the present tense.
      (b) If the passage is in the third person and past tense, its precis is also written in the third person and in past tense.
      (c) When the original passage is a speech, resolution or a letter in which we find a plentiful use of first and second person pronouns (we, our, us, you, your, I, my, me), the student has to be very careful in writing out a precis from it. This is a very important case. The student often fails to write a good precis in this case. He has to follow all those rules which guide him when he changes the direct into the indirect narration. That is the precis in this case is written in the past tense and in the third person.

  4. A good precis deals with the most important and relevant ideas borrowed from the original passage. It does not increase or decrease the importance of any idea nor does it minimise its relation to the central idea. It selects and gives all that is relevant and useful in developing and clarifying the main idea, but it rejects and ignores everything that is irrelevant and explanatory, decorative and unnecessary. The final impression made by a good precis is similar to that of the original passage.

  5. A good precis contains a close resemblance to the original passage so far as the order of its ideas is concerned. The point which comes in the beginning of the passage must occur first in the precis also. Similarly the point figuring in the middle comes in the middle and that figuring in the end comes at the end of a good precis also.

  6. A good precis is characterised by the natural flow of language. It is never a mere collection of jarring and jolting sentences. The first sentence should lead to the second and these to the third one. Each sentence should have link with the sentence which goes before or after.

  7. A good precis flowing from the student’s pen usually contains one paragraph only. It is brief, but it avoids brevity at the cost of ambiguity. It does not save time, it fails to serve its purpose. It is written in the writer’s own language but it can use some phrases from the passage also.

  The Method of Writing a Good Precis

  The student should first read the original passage twice or thrice. While reading the passage he should be in search of the sentence containing the central idea. When the writer of a precis finds out the sentence expressing the main idea, he should discover its key-phrase. This key-phrase should form the heading of his precis to be written later.

  The key-phrase which refers to the topic or subject of the whole passage occurs in the sentence bearing the central idea. After finding this sentence he should read the original passage again. This time he has to discover and underline five or six (sometimes more) sentences or their parts that express those ideas which have a bearing or influence on the central idea itself. The greater this bearing is the more important the idea is. All these newly discovered ideas are now to be expressed in short and simple sentences. They should be placed so as to express the important ideas of the original passage in the order in which they occur there. All these things should be done in an outline of rough work and then the precis should be faired out from it.

• Solved Exercise 1

  Speech is a great blessing, but it can also be a great curse, for while it helps us to make our intentions and desires known to our fellows, it can also, if we use it carelessly, make our attitude completely misunderstood. A slip of the tongue; the use of an unusual word or of an ambiguous word, and so on, may create an enemy where we had hoped to win a friend. Again different classes of people use different vocabularies, and the ordinary speech of an educated man may strike an uneducated listener as showing pride. Unwillingly we may use a word which bears a different meaning to our listener from what it does to men of our own class. Thus speech is not a gift to use lightly without thought, but one which demands careful handling. Only a fool will express himself alike to all kinds and conditions of men.

• Title: Great Blessing

  Precis
  Speech is a valuable gift, but, if we are to make ourselves understood, we must use it carefully, since we may distort our meaning not only by the careless use of words but by ignoring the fact that words do not always mean the same thing to different people.

• Paraphrasing

  The term paraphrase means expressing the meaning of different words especially to achieve greater clarity. Paraphrase is a restatement of the meaning of a text or passage using other words. The act of paraphrasing is called paraphrasis. A paraphrase classifies the text that is being paraphrased. The paraphrase serves to put the source’s statement into perspective or to explain the context in which it is appeared. It is more detailed than summary. In paraphrasing essential meaning of the material should be preserved. Paraphrasing can be done with individual sentences or paragraph.

  Guidelines for Paraphrasing – Following are the guidelines –

  1. Read the original two or three times.

  2. Try to write the main thought in your own words.

  3. Look deeply at unfamiliar words and see exact sense.

  4. Check paraphrase, as frequent as required.

  5. Contain a citation for the source of the information.

  Examples –

  Original Sentences	Paraphrased Sentence
  1. His life spanned years of incredible change for woman	Sohan lived through an era of liberating reform for women
  2. Cows like grass and hay and they can consume 10 kg of food a day.	A cow can eat up to 10 kg. of grass and hay every day.
  3. The signal was red.	The train was not allowed to pass because the signal was red.

• Text Book Analysis

  It is the systematic analysis of the text material. Structure, focus etc. should also be analysed. If structure is explained students can set a better idea of where they are going. If the teacher knows focus or bias, he can make additions/deletions as required to keep the presentation balanced.

  Implementing the Text Book Analysis – Text book can be analyzed in the following manner –

  1. Where a new book is adopted, it can be helpful if you can hear what the sales staff has to say about the book.

  2. In the absence of sales staff, see the promotional materials.

  3. Study the content and its sequence.

  4. Look the unit and chapter headings.

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